Identity systems in Africa: comparing Nigeria, SA, Rwanda, kenya and Cameroon

The growing need to bridge the accessibility gap has made the administration of identity systems an essential agency for countries, especially in Africa, where a disconnection between citizens and the government persists. 

A 2024 World Bank report indicates that a substantial number of Africans lack a legal identity, with estimates suggesting that nearly half of the continent’s population is without proper identification. This “identity gap” affects an estimated 542 million people, including 95 million children under the age of five who have never had any recognised registration, including births. 

As the lack of legal identity hinders access to essential services, economic opportunities, and other rights, the need to digitally bridge this gap has become more urgent than ever.

While the adoption has been on track to connect citizens to a unified portal, this article examines the identity management systems of 5 African countries (Nigeria, South Africa, Kenya, Cameroon, and Rwanda), highlighting their operational modes and challenges.

Below shows the African countries and their respective identity management agencies:

1. Nigeria: National Identification Management System (NIMC) 
2. South Africa: Department of Home Affairs (DHA) 
3. Kenya: National Integrated Identity Management System (NIIMS)
4. Cameroon: General Delegation for National Security (DGSN)
5. Rwanda: National Identification Agency (NIDA) 

What they have in common

The African countries under review, despite their uniqueness, have common traits in their identification system. These include the medium of data collection, being under the World Bank’s e-identity initiative and possessing data privacy laws.

1. World Bank’s ID4D initiative

They all fall under the World Bank’s Identification for Development (ID4D). This is a data initiative that harnesses global knowledge, World Bank financing instruments, and partnerships to help countries realise the transformational potential of identification (ID) systems, including civil registration (CR).

While it brings global knowledge and expertise across sectors to help countries realise the transformational potential of digital identity systems, ID4D also focuses on ensuring integration of digital identification systems with civil registration and vital statistics (CVRS).

In enhancing the ID4D initiative, the World Bank mobilised about $1 billion to 30 countries, with 23 of those in Africa, according to records dated to 2018. 

For instance, the initiative estimated a total $430 million in funding to Nigeria (with $45 million already disbursed). In 2019, the World Bank approved $750 million to support Kenya’s inclusive growth reforms, including the digital ID strategy. 

2. Electronic identification number 

All 5 countries have adopted an electronic digit for their citizens as part of their national identification system.

Upon the successful enrollment of citizens into their national identity databases, Nigeria’s NIMC and Cameroon’s DGSN issue an 11-digit unique identifier number, South Africa’s DHA provides a 13-digit, Kenya’s NIMS provides a 14-digit, and Rwanda’s NIDA issues a 16-digit unique number.

With the above model, these countries are developing a digital identification system to facilitate easier connection and authentication for e-governance and financial services. 

For instance, Kenya’s Huduma Centres provide e-government services through an online portal that centralises public service provision under an integrated system approach, aiming to streamline service delivery and enhance citizen access to over 5,000 government services. 

3. Biometric Data Collection 

All 5 countries collect citizens’ biometrics. These include fingerprints, facial recognition, and facial scans, and are linked to a unique personal identifier. This is then used to facilitate various national services: passport registration and immigration control, SIM linkage, bank account opening,  social benefits and records tracking. 

In February 2025, Cameroon’s DGSN, in partnership with the German company Augentic, launched an online pre-registration platform and production of new ID cards, which serve as a voter’s card and alleviate years of citizens’ difficulty with registration. 

Also Read: Ugandan Police to Fight Crime with Gemalto’s Biometric Identification System, But Could it also Be Used for Govt Oppression?

4. Legal and Regulatory Framework 

For governance and data protection guidance, each has a legal framework or national policy system.

See them below:

• Nigeria – National Identity Management Commission Act (NIMC) of 2007, National Data Protection Regulation (NDPR) 2009
• South Africa – Identification Act, 1997 (Act No. 68 of 1997), Protection of Personal Information Act (POPIA), 2023, and a Proposed National Identification and Registration Bill.
• Kenya – Registration of Persons Act (Cap 107), Data Protection Act, 2019. 
• Cameroon – Law No. 90-42 of December 19, 1990, Decree No. 2010/2357/PM of 23 July 2010. 
• Rwanda – Law No. 14/2008

What is different?

Amid these similarities, the 5 African countries possess unique features that distinguish them. These include enrollment style, ID systems and unique challenges.

It is also surprising that while some countries’ registration is free, others attract a processing fee, with accessibility restricted to defined age groups.

1. Number of citizens enrolled to date

Nigeria (NIN) - 121 million (as of June 2025)
South Africa (Smart ID) - 23.5 million (as of 2024)
Kenya (Huduma Namba) - 31 million (as of 2023)
Cameroon (National ID) - 20 million (as of Feb 2025)
Rwanda (Indangamuntu) - 6.5 million (as of 2023)

2. Enrollment details

Because these countries embody a significant digital identity system, the enrollment modifications differ.

In Nigeria, NIN enrollment is made free but mandatory for citizens, including children. While the Smart ID card registration is also free in South Africa, the platform is restricted to citizens and permanent residents who are 16 years and above. 

In Kenya, under its Huduma Namba, enrollment is open and free to all citizens from the age of 6. In Cameroon, its National ID registration is available to Cameroonians starting from age 18 and charges a processing fee of 10,000 CFA francs.

The same applies to Rwanda’s Indangamuntu enrollment, with a processing fee of Rwf500 and open to citizens over 16 years. 

Other Unique features of the countries in review are captured in the table below

Country	ID System	Unique Features	Challenges
Nigeria	NIN (National Identification Number)	– Unified number for all citizens. – Integrated with BVN (Bank Verification Number). – Required for SIM Card registration, Bank account opening, and government job applications.	– Infrastructure and awareness gaps in remote areas. – Mirrors citizens’ data duplication across systems such as BVN, Voter’s Card, Driver’s license, and so on.
South Africa	Smart ID Card (replaced green barcoded ID)	– Biometric validation for elections, banking, and grants. – Integrated with the Home Affairs National Identification System	– IT infrastructure, cybersecurity and data privacy issues
Kenya	Huduma Namba (Service number)	– Used in the eCitizen portal (a platform where Kenyans access government policies)	– Fears of data misuse – Legal challenge on slow rollout and implementation of the Data Protection Act.
Cameroon	National ID	– Required for voting, jobs, travel, e.t.c. – Centralised biometric system, which is all managed by DGSN	– Allegations of bureaucracy and corruption – Backlog in issuance – Rural accessibility
Rwanda	National ID (Indangamuntu)	– Digital ID integrated with core services like health insurance (Mutuelle) – Uses RwandaOnline for e-services	– Limited accessibility considering the processing fee – Weak legal and institutional frameworks supporting the digital use of the National ID.

Also Read: 121 million NIN enrollments: why some states perform better than others

Challenges facing the African Identity system

Despite obvious investments to bridge the identity gap, adoption is still low in most African countries. Only a few have achieved substantial coverage.

In rural areas, coverage has been hindered by high direct and indirect costs. These include infrastructure costs such as enrollment machines and agents, and a lack of interest from citizens. 

Technology is another challenge. While some countries use a secure system for registration, credentialisation and authentication, data security and storage pose another difficulty. Only a few African countries store and manage their data in line with international best practices.

Data duplication is another. Many African countries have multiple agencies drawing data from citizens and a multitude of functional identity registers operated in isolation. While legal frameworks exist to guide identity management and protection, many countries are still lagging in recognition and implementation. 

For a more enhanced identification system that captures a significant percentage of citizens, African countries need to focus on improving infrastructural development. They must also bridge the connection divide and resource availability between urban and rural areas.